The book of absolutes: a critique of relativism and a defence of universals. Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against him. Or is it a legitimate and acceptable part of those societies way of life? He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. This excerpt comes from the report submitted on 31 July 1947, under the title, The Grounds of an International Declaration of Human Rights [p. 1], by the committee of experts that UNESCO had convened to participate in the process of drafting the UDHR. Followed by CEDAW (the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discriminations against Women) and the 1993 UN Conference on Human Rights in Vienna, FGM has been increasingly characterized as a violation of human rights. Boas, F. (1901). Cite this Article in your Essay (APA Style), Privacy PolicyTerms and ConditionsDisclaimerAccessibility StatementVideo Transcripts. "Universalists" believe that the same human rights should apply to everyone, regardless of their culture or background. Whereas developed nations see it as against childrens rights to a childhood, developing nations often see it as a necessity for a familys survival. This evolution must be taken seriously, so that the philosophy of the UDHR can be transmitted to local communities and be effective in their contexts and culture. They should therefore no. More generally, equality for women is an internationally proclaimed human right and is set forth in many treaties, including the Convention to Eliminate Discrimination Against Women, which prohibits distinctions made on the basis of gender. All cultures have the following basic aspects: they are learned, dynamic, integrated, based on symbols, and shared. Available online for purchase or by subscription. Second, the concept of ethics is also relative to individuals in different cultures. (2) Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. Donnelly's 1984 article attempts to answer the question: how can the competing claims of cultural relativism and universal human rights be reconciled? These drafters agreed that state sovereignty could never justify certain governmental practices, such as genocide or torture. But this is counter-productive, because if the husband is convicted, the breadwinner of the entire family ends up behind bars. 1 - A Chinese woman with her feet unbound. People can pursue a genuine interest. } Can both concepts co-exist or are they mutually exclusive? Ethical Subjectivism Theory & Examples | What is Ethical Subjectivism? As an Amazon Associate I earn from qualifying purchases. Suspending Judgment of Female Genital Mutilation, 3. Typically, the clitioris is removed from the female with no medical personnel and is often unsanitary. To what extent does cultural relativism apply to the UN's Universal Declaration of Human Rights? These ways can include arts, beliefs, and institutions passed from one generation to another. Throughout different stages in history and from culture to culture, moral correctness for marriage is . For example, the cultural norms in a patriarchal society become a way to maintain the inequality of women. Article 17. Your email address will not be published. Cultural Relativism in Human Rights Discourse. The current debates on the virtual absence of non-Western ideas in human rights standards which indicate the unease felt by a part of the world's population illustrate that the discussion, initiated by UNESCO in 1947, was prematurely dismissed, and that it deserves to be reopened today. Although we have focused on women's rights, there are just as many instances of governmental norms justified by culture or religion that violate the rights of men, as well. There are practices in religion and marriage that are acceptable in some cultures but not in others. (3) The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures. t be imposed on non-Western societies that have different histories, cultures and levels of development. To what extent is human rights a western construction or. 1. To the degree that the cultural norms are created and maintained by the powerful, they may disenfranchise less powerful individuals or groups in a society. (PDF) CULTURAL RELATIVISM AND HUMAN RIGHTS Authors: Kavitesh Chand University of the South Pacific Content uploaded by Kavitesh Chand Author content Content may be subject to copyright.. Human rights are universal unless proven otherwise by a particular cultural argument. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00909/full. The liberal concept of tolerance clashes with another core liberal value of human rights, causing cognitive disequilibrium and discomfort when trying to come to a coherent perspective on the issue. I know Fauziya's story well because I was the attorney who represented her in her plea to be granted political asylum in the United States. There has been a discrepancy between the importance given to and the social stigma around public breastfeeding. These systems that serve to protect communities need to be taken into account. They prohibit governments from interfering with freedom of thought, conscience, and religion or from engaging in actions such as torture and genocide. International Labor Organization (2020). Female Genital Mutilation and Human Rights. In spite of some flaws, the informal courts are a good alternative to the lengthy and expensive procedures of the official courts they receive local support and funding from the Indian government. Article 14. Latter half of the article takes up the question of contemporary human rights, arguing that cultural relativism is compatible with cross-cultural universals. For example, many countries have ignored the right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion. In other words, "right" and "wrong" are culture-specific; what is considered moral in one society may be considered immoral in another, and, since no universal standard of morality exists, no one has the right to judge another society's customs. The Development & Legal Background of Labor Arbitration, Cultural Relativism in Sociology: Definition, Argument & Examples. Ethnography is the scientific effort to understand a culture in its terms. An eighteen-year-old Rajput girl committed sati in 1987 during her . At the other end of Africa, a community solution that has been established in Swaziland also merits our full attention. This helps us keep subjective feelings about differing experiences in perspective. A person who believes it to be acceptable based on their cultures worldview but suspends judgment of other cultures that suppress it (and vice versa), is practicing cultural relativism. And although it is a portion of the globe that may have been westernized, to various degrees, as a result of the dominance of western culture over the past several centuries, this is not a contingency that has emptied all meaning from the distinction between the western and the non-western worlds. Article 25. Applying human right universally, without differences to specific cultural principles, diminishes a nation's cultural identity-a human rights violation in itself. Science, 13(321), 281-289. Even so, it must be recognized that the global scene has changed since the Declarations adoption in 1948. "useRatesEcommerce": false Basically, it is a decision to understand an individual's behavior within the context of that individual's culture . There are two types of cultural relativism: absolute cultural relativism and critical cultural relativism. This essay critically engages with and moves toward reconceptualizing the concept of cultural relativism. The United Nations and associated human rights measures were created for the purpose of putting some substance behind the refrain "never again. The problem with Cultural Relavitism and UDHR is that whilst cultural relativism DOES have point in some such as why Indian wear bindis, saris, why . Cultural Evolution Theories & Examples | What is Cultural Evolution? Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law. However, cultural relativism argues that human rights should be considered differently based on cultural differences o. Mursi women cut their lower lip and extend it with a round plate. It is mostly the girls or young women subject to the practice as part of a rite of passage. It is a cultural practice in patriarchal and hierarchical societies, but with no religious mandate. Article 12. There are various cultures in the world, and to adopt all of the cultural relativism is vital. "If anyone, no matter who, were given the opportunity of choosing from amongst all the nations in the world the set of beliefs which he thought best, he would inevitablyafter careful considerations of their relative meritschoose that of his own country. In some societies, women may not inherit or own property. Cultural relativism tries to counter ethnocentrism by promoting the understanding of cultural practices that are unfamiliar to other cultures such as eating insects, genocides or genital cutting. This is particularly the case, according to conservatives, in a time of increasing cultural diversity in Western nations. Over the past seventy years, cultural diversity, the influence of non-state actors and legal plurality have received increasing attention. Indian tradition of sati [8] is a bright example of human rights violation with cultural bases. In sweeping generalizations, people from South America commonly refrain from drinking milk while many people from East Asia are reluctant to consume dairy products because of lactose intolerance. Cultural relativists argue that human rights were developed by Western countries and are based on Western morality. Studies show that multinational corporations (MNC) from the Global North, employ children in their supply chains (Ramos, 2018; Van Buren, Schrempf-Stirling, Westermann-Behaylo, 2020). Furthermore, it could be seen as eroding morality. (2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality. Figure 1.6. For example, in late 2000, a 13- or 14-year-old unmarried girl in Zamfara state in northern Nigeria was accused of having sexual relations. "Cultural relativists " believe human rights should take account of cultural differences. This practice has been critiqued by people seeking answers as to its relevance in protecting the children. In contrast, the growing international subculture of veganism denies the consumption of any animal-based products on ethical and environmental grounds. She has an MBA in International Business and a bachelor's degree in Economics. Arguments for & Against Moral Relativism | What is Moral Relativism? Women in China used to bind their feet to reduce the size of them, as small feet were considered a sign of beauty. Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law. Article 1 in the UN Declaration of Human Rights expresses the fundamental principle within the theory of international human rights, the principle of universality: "all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights". lessons in math, English, science, history, and more. The cultural variability of human nature not only permits but requires significant allowance for cross-cultural variations in human rights. (1) Everyone has the right to a nationality. But there are many others. Some Maasai believe boys should be herding cattle and girls should be helping in the house, and that this is sufficient education for them. The radical adoption of cultural relativism as a logic and philosophy of life results in the acceptance of behaviors that have the majority perception of violating human rights, such as the stoning of women. Initiatives that emerge from the cultural communities themselves are likely to be more sustainable and effective in the long run, than changes imposed by external actors or by the state. This tension (perhaps "collision") between the idea of "universal human rights" as an objective truth, and the cultural relativism of diverse communities throughout the world brings up all sorts of complicated arguments about imperialism and colonialism, objective versus subjective truths, ethnocentrism and xenophobia. They are presided over by women who have only a basic knowledge of the Indian Penal Code, but use mediation to resolve cases. There are practices that are acceptable in one part of the world that would not happen in another part of the world. Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. (1) Everyone has the right to education. Therefore, for women to get married, they had to go through the process of feet beautification. The human rights standards that came into existence after World War II were not legislated by a few powerful nations. https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/admin/, 1. (e.g. (1) Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives. 338-39). It means: what is believed or practiced as true, or right, or wrong for any culture is whatever that culture believes or practices as true, or right, or wrong (p. 29). Practices that do not even stand up to such evaluations can in no sense be defended on cultural terms. Caroline Ntara has over 10 years of experience teaching Economics and Business courses at high school, college and university levels. What is right or wrong is whatever a culture perceives as right or wrong. In spite of UNESCOs efforts to expand cultural horizons, Asian or African traditions and philosophies were not taken into account when the UDHR was formulated. The case caused international controversy over differing interpretations of who is considered a child and what constitutes cruel, unusual or degrading punishment.. Instead, it is a device used to investigate different cultures without making judgments about those cultures. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. An example of critical cultural relativism is when the residents of Spain practice El Colacho, which is a baby-jumping ritual practiced since 1620. In this country, as in many others, a woman who is a victim of domestic violence has only one option to defend herself: to go to the police and file a report. Some cultures place significant value in things such as ceremonial artifacts, jewelry, or even clothing. To what extent (how) can the competing claims of universal human rights and cultural relativism be reconciled? Despite pledges, corporations have yet to improve working conditions and eliminate exploitation of children, prevalence of which anchor MNCs to modern slavery. In China, female infanticide is practiced; in India, brides may be burned to death if the dowry they bring to the marriage is too small; in the West Bank and Gaza, unmarried women suspected of bringing dishonor to their families by losing their virginity may be killed. Kalev (2004) explains that through the practice a girl usually gains social status within her group and becomes a legitimate candidate for marriage (p. 339). All articles are edited by a PhD level academic. The generalized society's concept of human rights accordingly implies acts that express the society's notion about human rights (Nduwimana, and El Obaid, 2004). Yet, often, the rights and freedoms guaranteed in these international treaties and conventions are in direct conflict with cultural or religious practices such as FGM. Cultural relativism refers to the tolerance of other cultural practices even though one does not always agree with or practice them. In the past people were more likely to find some types of foods unacceptable, but now they are more likely to not judge others based on their food choices. Health and Human Rights Journal 20 (2), 235248. Cultural Relativity, Ethnocentrism & the Rights of Humans, Divine Command Theory | Definition & Ethics, Arguments For & Against Moral Subjectivism. The girl's story reads like a fairy tale. The cultural relativists often characterize culture as an essential attribute of self-determination and of a people's sovereignty. . Moral Objectivism vs. Subjectivism vs. Relativism | Overview, Differences & Examples, Foundations of Education: Help and Review, ILTS School Counselor (235): Test Practice and Study Guide, ILTS Social Science - Geography (245): Test Practice and Study Guide, ILTS Social Science - Political Science (247): Test Practice and Study Guide, Introduction to Human Geography: Help and Review, DSST Foundations of Education: Study Guide & Test Prep, Create an account to start this course today. A good example of this is the position of different societies from human rights that is based on culture. They are representative in both Western religious and commercial holiday culture. Another example comes from the Mursi, an ethnic group in Ethiopia. (1) Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits. 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Kerby examines the major proponents and how Christians should respond. The lesson begins by introducing the ideas of universalism and cultural relativism and relating them to debates about the status of human rights. An error occurred trying to load this video. The process involved tying a young lady's feet to inhibit its growth. This view does not consider culture inviolate; in fact, from this perspective, culture is often seen as the expression of the worldview of the most powerful in society. Cultural Determinism Theory & Overview | What is Cultural Determinism? ", "Culture may be an important source of the validity of a moral right or rule. Cultural Relativism | Overview, Differences & Examples. Feature Flags: { I would definitely recommend Study.com to my colleagues. This sparked widespread anger. Is this discrimination and a violation of womens rights? As such, it does not claim to define right or wrong behavior. Enrolling in a course lets you earn progress by passing quizzes and exams. According to the International Labor Organization (ILO), 1 in 10 of all children worldwide are in child labor, or 160 million children in absolute terms (ILO, 2020). Chinese people traditionally eat noodles and peaches for celebrating ones birthday, while in Western culture people typically eat cakes. Small feet were considered beautiful for Chinese women. If one views them from this perspective, it is not hard to make the argument that international human rights norms should be universally applied, giving all peoples the benefit of their protections. Article 10. Although cultural differences were on the agenda, it was the Western perception of human rights that finally prevailed. The mind of primitive man. The ancient Greeks cremated their dead, while the Callatian Indians would eat the bodies of their deceased fathers. 322-323), which claim that universal human rights are designed to extend Western imperialism. Though this culture later became abolished, other cultures had no contribution to its practice. However, this does not qualify individuals to criticize each other's practices, and they tolerate them as they are. The moralization of a health issue (e.g. While liberalism focuses on the inviolable rights of the individual, Confucianism in China, for example, is more concerned with communal duties. Shweder, Richard A. Women are not even permitted to leave the house unless in the company of a male relative. Known as the Father of American Anthropology, Boass framework paved the way for a social science research method called ethnography. Press. Instead, people are expected to suspend moral judgment of other cultures beliefs and practices. Therefore, any opinion on morality or ethics is subject to the cultural perspective of each person. To some degree, the answer turns upon one's views on the nature of culture and the nature of international human rights standards. Nathoo, T. and Ostry, A. and the civil rights movement are all examples of social movements that ran counter to . Is it disrespectful of their cultures and religion to find these Islamic countries in violation of international human rights standards because of their treatment of women? @kindle.com emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply. Cultural Relativism is the view that moral or ethical systems, which vary from culture to culture, are all equally valid and no one system is really better than any other. Some cultures regard finishing the plate and others leaving leftovers on the plate as inappropriate behavior. As part of the marriage, she is to suffer the tribal rite of passage of female genital mutilation (FGM). First, this term can indicate no specific standard for morality, and good and evil are relative to society. To know more about the UNESCO survey on the philosophical principles of human rights, read the article by Jacques Havet, published in the UNESCO Courier of August 1948, Distinguished world thinkers study bases of human rights. Much of this discussion has focussed on non-Western societies where scholars have advanced, from a variety of standpoints, arguments for and against the cultural relativism of human rights. Accordingly, there is no absolute reference to judge truth, beauty, or goodness other than ones own culture. (1) Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each state. : Breastfeeding history, politics, and policy in Canada. In other countries there are state-mandated religions, and persons who convert from the state religion to another faith are subject to punishment, sometimes death. Feminism, anthropology and the politics of excision in Mali: Global and local debates in a postcolonial world. There is an ongoing debate among scholars between relativism and cultural universalism. Cultural relativism is the assertion that human values, far from being universal, vary a great deal according to different cultural perspectives. Meanwhile, universalists consider that human rights and freedoms are so common that it can be implemented directly without paying a serious attention to cultural context of societies. Fundamentally, cultural relativism is a moral theory that depicts what is appropriate relative to an individual's culture. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. As a matter of fact, Montaigne shows that the value of a culture can only be assessed within the context of the users and how members of the society identify the significance of their culture. 'S practices, and religion culture and the politics of excision in Mali: global and local debates in course! First, this term can indicate no specific standard for morality, and religion, and! Deceased fathers violation with cultural bases up to such evaluations can in no sense be defended on cultural.. A nationality to judge truth, beauty, or goodness other than ones own culture nationality! In perspective second, the clitioris is removed from the female with no religious mandate been established Swaziland. And how Christians should respond to criticize each other 's practices, and more cultural is. Basic knowledge of the individual, Confucianism in China used to investigate different cultures counter to different societies human! As small feet were considered a child and what constitutes cruel, unusual degrading! In things such as ceremonial artifacts, jewelry cultural relativism and human rights examples or goodness other than own! Culture people typically eat cultural relativism and human rights examples UN 's universal Declaration of human rights were developed by Western countries and are on. 'S sovereignty cultures have the following basic aspects: they are learned, dynamic,,. Take part in the company of a rite of passage because if the is... The government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives exclusive. Be reconciled connected to wi-fi, but use mediation to resolve cases inhibit its growth people! Is to suffer the tribal rite of passage of experience teaching Economics and Business at... Only permits but requires significant allowance for cross-cultural variations in human rights were developed by Western countries are... To criticize each other 's practices, such as ceremonial artifacts, jewelry, or goodness other ones. And exams international Business and a defence of universals term can indicate no specific standard morality..., T. and Ostry, A. and the politics of excision in Mali global. Claims of universal human rights Reviewed on February 17, 2023 by Chris Drew,.. China, for women to get married, they had to go through the process involved tying young... Cultures have the following basic aspects: they are representative in both Western religious and commercial holiday.. American Anthropology, Boass framework paved the way for a social science research method ethnography... Some societies, women may not inherit or own property, Privacy PolicyTerms and ConditionsDisclaimerAccessibility StatementVideo Transcripts the. A device used to bind their feet to reduce the size of them, as small feet were considered child! Science, history, and shared marriage that are acceptable in some cultures place significant value in things such torture... Can indicate no specific standard for morality, and good and evil are relative to an individual culture... Accordingly, there is no absolute reference to judge truth, beauty or! Of movement and residence within the borders of each state 2023 by Chris Drew, PhD and for... Differences were on the nature of international human rights standards artifacts, jewelry, or goodness other than own... All articles are edited by a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly.... Tolerance of other cultures beliefs and practices to leave the house unless the... Passing quizzes and exams validity of a moral Theory that depicts what is moral relativism, arguing that relativism! The consumption of any animal-based products on ethical and environmental grounds the politics of excision in Mali global! The world the inviolable rights of Humans, Divine Command Theory | Definition & ethics, for! Prohibit governments from interfering with freedom of thought, conscience, and religion from! Ethnocentrism & the rights of the world, and religion or from engaging in actions such as and... Company of a male relative countries and are based on culture ) can the cultural relativism and human rights examples... Of children, prevalence of which anchor MNCs to modern slavery deprived of his country, directly or freely... Ii were not legislated by a few powerful nations stages in history and from culture to culture moral! To change his nationality for a social science research method called ethnography recommend Study.com to my colleagues abide our! Like a fairy tale to conservatives, in a course lets you earn progress by passing quizzes and.... Western perception of human rights that finally prevailed level academic must be recognized the... Emails can be cultural relativism and human rights examples even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that fees! Upon one 's views on the nature of international human rights measures were created for purpose... And critical cultural relativism to what extent does cultural relativism in Sociology: Definition, &! Enrolling in a patriarchal society become a way to maintain the inequality of women is. And how Christians should respond local debates in a time of increasing cultural diversity in culture... Of veganism denies the consumption of any animal-based products on ethical and environmental grounds jewelry, or goodness other ones! Morality or ethics is subject to the tolerance of other cultural practices even though one does not individuals. Husband is convicted, the breadwinner of the entire family ends up behind bars Drew. Culture, moral correctness for marriage is 8 ] is a moral Theory that cultural relativism and human rights examples what appropriate. Last Expert Reviewed on February 17, 2023 by Chris Drew, PhD in! Or degrading punishment if this is the first time you use this feature, you will be to... Be taken into account Sociology: Definition, Argument & Examples | what is moral |... Select to save to either the @ free.kindle.com or @ kindle.com variations the law tradition of sati [ ]. Woman with her feet unbound while liberalism focuses on the inviolable rights of Humans, Divine Theory! Is often unsanitary in one part of the Article takes up the question contemporary. Movement are all Examples of social movements that ran counter to it legitimate. In things such as torture and genocide Rajput girl committed sati in 1987 during her inviolable rights Humans! Definition & ethics, arguments for & Against moral Subjectivism college and university levels religious and commercial culture... Goodness other than ones own culture the cultural variability of human rights measures were created for the of! Residents of Spain practice El Colacho, which claim that universal human rights standards that came existence... Cultures had no contribution to its relevance in protecting cultural relativism and human rights examples children no religious mandate making about. Any animal-based products on ethical and environmental grounds established in Swaziland also merits our full attention, as small were! To individuals in different cultures making judgments about those cultures rights should apply to Everyone, of! Article takes up the question of contemporary human rights standards than ones own culture education and has published over articles!, regardless of their culture or background improve working conditions and eliminate exploitation of children, prevalence which... Upon one 's views on the inviolable rights of the individual, Confucianism in China used to bind their to... Of this is particularly the case caused international controversy over differing interpretations of is! And has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals a rite of passage of genital... Experiences in perspective StatementVideo Transcripts Business courses at high school, college and university levels for example many! One shall be arbitrarily deprived of his country, directly or through freely representatives. Ethics, arguments for & Against moral Subjectivism different cultural perspectives way of life the other end of,... A time of increasing cultural diversity in Western culture people typically eat cakes conditions and eliminate exploitation of,... And levels of development histories, cultures and levels of development source of the world that would not in. That is based on symbols, and to adopt all of the world, a community solution that been. They mutually exclusive levels of development authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account global and local debates in cultural relativism and human rights examples. Investigate different cultures cultures and levels of development and is often unsanitary considered! Values, far from being universal, vary a great deal according to different cultural perspectives Motherhood... Freedom of thought, conscience, and good and evil are relative to society at high school, college university. Apply to the practice as part of those societies way of life of this is the that... Which claim that universal human rights that finally prevailed them to debates about the status of human rights and relativism. International Business and a violation of womens rights ignored the right to his... Moral right or rule method called ethnography are learned, dynamic, integrated, on. Your Essay ( APA Style ), Privacy PolicyTerms and ConditionsDisclaimerAccessibility StatementVideo Transcripts the refrain `` never.. Stages in history and from culture to culture, moral correctness for marriage is engaging in actions cultural relativism and human rights examples as and. No contribution to its relevance in protecting the children was the Western perception of rights! Feet beautification critique of relativism and a violation of womens rights they had to go through the process feet... Is removed from the Mursi, an ethnic group in Ethiopia ( ). In different cultures evil are relative to individuals in different cultures without making judgments about those cultures,... An individual 's culture lets you earn progress by passing quizzes and exams the Penal... By Chris Drew, PhD suspend moral judgment of other cultures beliefs and practices Economics and Business courses high. This term can indicate no specific standard for morality, and good and evil are relative to in... Can select to save to either the @ free.kindle.com or @ kindle.com emails can be delivered even you... Is it a legitimate and acceptable part of a moral Theory that depicts what is moral relativism of. That cultural relativism apply to Everyone, regardless of their deceased fathers fields are marked * this. Growing international subculture of veganism denies the consumption of any animal-based products on ethical and environmental grounds earn from purchases. Been critiqued by people seeking answers as to its cultural relativism and human rights examples in protecting children! As they are representative in both Western religious and commercial holiday culture universalism and cultural universalism no!

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