Within the play-space of fiction, readers can safely experiment with various conceptual blends, feeling fear and sadness for the soldier. One may interpret this as a visual metaphor not only for the French invasion of Egypt but also for the fiction that the French soldier attempts to impose on the female leopard. Toward an evolutionary theory of aesthetics, fiction and arts. Thus, alliteration may playfully exercise our evolved ability to discern phonemes and respond to patterns (Boyd 2009). This secondary analysis is the process we teach throughout the course. (2007) proposed that The human attention system evolved to reliably develop certain category-specific selection criteria, including a set designed to differentially monitor animals and humans (16598). By the same token, a frequently used metaphor can have the weaker impact of a simile. Open Access This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Noncommercial License ( Animal similes We also often use similes to liken a person to an animal based on that animals main characteristic, for example: as blind as a bat as drunk as a skunk (this is said more because it rhymes than because skunks are known for drinking too much !) (2007) interpreted these experimental results as follows: The results herein implicate a visual monitoring system equipped with ancestrally derived animal-specific selection criteria. Human fascination with animal behaviour probably extends back millions of years, perhaps even to times before the ancestors of the species became human in the modern sense. All rights reserved. Yet the film never allows the viewers perception of the leopard or desert to become indistinguishable from the soldiers own constructions. In a scientific context, the statement Humans are animals could be construed to mean that humans are members of the Animal Kingdom with traits we share with other animal species because we all evolved from common ancestors. This is not just because Balzacs story is a work of fiction. It true be visible that recursive thinking about itself a metaphor of detour behaviour. WebAn example of this is when the Germans throw bread around for the victims to scramble and eat and relates the men 's behavior to, "Wild beasts of prey, with animal hatred in their eyes;" (Wiesel 105). We test this hypothesis in our course in a slightly different way. Article Thus, Timimi responded to an editorial (BMJ 2014;349:g6821), writing that parity of esteem between mental and physical health was a red herring because it would mean pouring money into potentially harmful, stigmatising and ineffective service, although the editorialists disagreed. New J, Cosmides L, Tooby J. Category-specific attention for animals reflects ancestral priorities, not expertise. From there, we get tumours that are like tigers, which is a simile; or the full transference to metaphor in, for example, an article with the subtitle, can we identify the tigers from the pussy cats. Urologists in particular have adopted this distinction, for prostate and bladder cancer. Like conformity bias, confirmation bias can work in conjunction with other apparently evolved tendencies, such as prejudice against individuals identified as members of an outgroup. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2008. p. 10928. Fearing for his life, he killed her with his dagger. WebAnimals have behaviors for almost every imaginable aspect of life, from finding food to wooing mates, from fighting off rivals to raising offspring. Lakoff proposes that becoming aware of how we metaphorically conceptualize or frame problems, including environmental crises (Lakoff 2009), is crucial to our ability to find appropriate solutions, particularly if the frames promote attitudes of indifference to or autonomy from nature. The third assignment asked students to take theory, both scientific and literary, that they had learned and create an experiential understanding of the local environment: Drawing upon Easterlins idea of place, make observations about one or more animals that are part of this particular place where we all regularly meet and work together: the Vassar campus. 2003;7:926. Urbana: University of Illinois Press; 2003. Indeed, we regularly discount the precise language others use when the factors of cultural context, framing, image (including auditory image, such as tone of voice), and our evolved capacity for biases combine to make us discern or suspect what an analogy maker really meant to say. We also have an innate tendency to notice and pay attention to animals. BMJ Publishing Group Limited 2023. Google Scholar. One of the most inventive projects used evolutionary theories of self-deception in an analysis of commercials warning about global warming and then warning about global warming alarmists. The assertion of anything as a human universal is to predict, in evolutionary terms, that the universal is either a shared derived trait for humans alone or for humans and some cluster of the species most closely related to us. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.0 Entire narratives can be metaphorical when they serve the purpose of expressing one story in terms of a different story (Burke 2003). Translation by David Wills. The most poignant emotion is attachment. New York: Routledge; 2003. p. 11528. http://chss.montclair.edu/english/furr/int/evolution.html. Applying theories of evolutionary psychology and cognitive science to literary texts, we explored the role of animal metaphors in the making and partaking of stories in the context of a course in environmental studies. The calm with which they lead their camels is sharply contrasted with the desperation of French army soldiers unable to control their horses on the dunes, or even to keep themselves and their horses alive as water supplies dwindle. Students learn to analyze ways in which such universals participate in the production and reception of narrative literature and film, whose metaphors can mediate the anxiety we may have about being animals. Red herrings, which traditionally pussy cats should like, probably originated from the practice of setting false trails for hunting dogs. WebSupertrope to Caged Bird Metaphor . For these reasons, our course embraces all figures of speech, including simile, and all metaphorical representations, including visual metaphor, as fair game for analysis (to use an animal metaphor of our own). Haidt J, Rozin P, McCauley C, Imada S. Body, psyche, and culture: the relationship between disgust and morality. Human beings have the intelligence to be aware of their own inevitable deaths. Fine Line Features; 1998. The fourth assignment, a final project, was scaffolded into a proposal, an oral presentation, and a final paper. Another cat metaphor is letting them out of the bag. Haidt J. Dissanayake E. Darwin meets literary theory. Paradoxically, the evolved use of animal metaphors to fashion a relationship with the environment allows humans to conceptualize themselves as non-animals. Some of these behaviors are Ben Daniels. Even within the story, the reader is prevented from pretending that the soldiers report is accurate, for the love story itself hinges on the soldier-narrators tendency to create fictions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 2002. Meaning. The evocation of lipstick by both sides calls attention to the power of visual metaphor, which pictorially maps features of one thing onto something else. According to the animate monitoring hypothesis, most humans would automatically detect the bird over non-animate ice or sea. Our early ancestors enjoyed imaginative flights of protoliterary experience, which accelerated our evolution as literary animals. F. Kennedy. On the other hand, many reporters used simile to characterize a statement Obama made that used the formal structure of metaphor. Most, but not all, students write bird.. Zoomorphs tend Any assertion about humans automatically allows for the phrase I am to replace Humans are. Yet when classifying themselves, humans normally use I am to assert categorial identity. Animals cavorted while humans drove cars that polluted and caused the oceans to rise and the animals to cry. Grizzly Man. Place begins for each individual with attachments to their first other being, mother, and continues through time with changing social relationships, cultural constructions, and identity. Zoomorphs tend to be male and refer to healthy adult individuals, with little usage referring to disability or infirmity. Another way is through the use of poetic rhyme and meter, thought to promote positive feelings of social harmony and a sense of group purpose. This question, meant to provoke discussion, was put to students on the first day of Animal Metaphors, an intermediate-level course designed for the multidisciplinary environmental studies major at Vassar College. Evolution. 2008;59:61745. For example, a human infant will grasp an object, such as a finger, that is placed in its palm. The texts eliciting conditions trigger a simulation process. When humans describe themselves metaphorically as being above and beyond animals, the word animal itself becomes metaphorical. Metaphors are central to cognition, though we are usually unaware of how much our conceptualizations engage them (Hogan 2003). Because both frames and modules are thought to be neural circuits, and circuits are heritable (Cosmides and Tooby 1997), any frame or module may be adaptive. The third module turns to the use of animal metaphors in a broad range of discourses and representations that address environmental issues. Create an animal metaphors syllabus, complete with readings. Balzac H de. ), which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited. Our penchant and skill for such transactions, which include storytelling, dramatic rituals, role-playing, and chanting, probably grew from protoliterary experiences which enabled early humans to outdo their less imaginative rivals (Hernadi 2001, 56). It is the statistical composite of selection pressures that caused the design of an adaptation. We are inclined to care about the life choices other people make and to compare them with our own; to get emotionally caught up in stories of their conundrums; to want to discuss them and, sometimes, to let our passionate involvement drive on a discussion that has exhausted any other rational purpose. To lay the groundwork for metaphors, the first assignment was hunting for metaphors. After reading and discussing Glucksbergs (2003) behavior experiments on metaphor recognition, we asked students to seek out metaphors. To the extent that we metaphorize our corporeal condition as our animal nature, we may be denying our fundamental affiliation with (other) animals in ways that actually increase our anxiety and wall us off from life-sustaining attitudes of connectedness: By clinging to sources of self-esteem or ones cultural (political, social, or religious) worldview, human beings can begin to escape their existential burden. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2008. p. 46282. In: Gavins J, Steen G, editors. Glucksbergs experiments suggest that humans immediately process metaphors. While fiction and legend might describe lions as noble, when we apply animal metaphors to human behaviour, it is usually to denigrate it: Most animal metaphors for human personality are uncomplimentary, reinforcing the perceived distance between humans and nonhuman animal species. Once distanced, humans can behave truly appallingly, before muttering that we must make sure it never happens again. Fiction neither affirms nor denies, but operates rather in the realm of What if? It is a form of make-believe with rules whose pleasures include thinking, wondering, imagining, and experiencing connectedness with other humans who share the literary experience. PubMed Glucksberg S. The psycholinguistics of metaphor. Forceville C. Metaphor in pictures and multimodal representation. A final exam was also given that asked for written responses to five questions. This treat is reinforcing the behaviour because the dog likes it and will result in him sitting when instructed to do so. Lakoff G. The neural theory of metaphor. Lakoff G, Johnson M. Metaphors we live by. In the 2008 campaign, visual metaphor could reinforce cultural stereotypes of women and African American men. There are plenty in the medical journals but, to be a real red herring, something has to divert attention, not simply be wrong. The biggest pedagogic challenge of this course was to find ways to connect with and engage students of many different majors. Hogan PC. The Cambridge handbook of metaphor and thought. Through the study of specific works of literature, we can develop skills for understanding how animal metaphors mediate our identity and relationship with nature. Indeed, our focus on animals may be another automatic and evolved module. Most animal metaphors for human personality are uncomplimentary, reinforcing the perceived distance between humans and nonhuman animal species. Examples of Animal Metaphors (A-Z List) Metaphor. Google Scholar. Under these circumstances, ecocriticism risks becoming little more than an attitude, free of the theoretical grounding that a coherent field of inquiry would require (Easterlin 2004). Readers, in turn, use cognitive universals implicitly to get inside the heads of writers or characters the writer depicts (Zunshine 2006). Oxford English Dictionary defines metaphor as the figure of speech in which a name or descriptive term is transferred to some object different from, but analogous to, that to which it is properly applicable. Though often understood as a device employed by poets, metaphor is part of everyday speech. For example, when an infant was ready to approach a male in a bad mood, the female would shake her head at the infant," Frans de Waal, a primatologist at Emory Theory of mind is the ability of one individual to guess or attribute the mental states of another, and this ability is thought to be essential in human and interspecies communication (Premack and Woodruff 1978). Google Scholar. Here, the written account ends in suspension points. Paradoxically, the evolved use of animal metaphors to fashion a relationship with the environment allows humans to conceptualize themselves as non-animals. Competing interests: I have read and understood BMJ policy on declaration of interests and declare that my only competing interest is my co-authorship of a book about medical English. Thus, thematic universals (to name only two) in Romeo and Juliet include attachment and the formation of an in-group distinguished from out-groups. Humans have the cognitive ability to make and understand metaphors, and they create animal metaphors in order to cognitively model and represent other agents, including other humans, in our ongoing struggle for existence in a rapidly changing environment. A universal is any trait, behavior, or characteristic that is shared by all humans (Brown 1991). Hogan proposes that fiction activates emotional memories, but we misattribute these feelings because our attentional focus is on the events of the literary work (Hogan 2003). But unlike a traditional literature course that would do so by referring only to theories of culture and identity that ignore evolutionary theory, or even treat it as counter to such aims, our course integrates literary study with evolutionary psychology and cognitive science. They are asked to write down their first impression of each image. By the courses conclusion, students have acquired new knowledge and tools for exploring the problem of humananimal identity by learning to understand and analyze the very representational practices we engage in from an evolutionary perspective. In response to conceptions of the environment as human-less nature, Buell (1999) and others have developed the concept of place, a word that, Easterlin (2004) explains, conjoins perception, cultural mediation, and apparent physical location (11). http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1555. All, however, were conscious of the humans-as-animals perspective. In these fields, metaphor is not just a figure of speech. Passion in the Desert. Paris: ditions Kim; 2006. When the leopard doesnt strike, we lower our defenses and begin to attach ourselves to the attachment that is forming between the soldier and the leopard. Darwins Cathedral. Huffington Post 19 May 2009. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/george-lakoff/why-environmental-underst_b_205477.html. In: Gibbs RW, editor. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1991. He transforms the leopard into a charming and bejeweled human princess or courtesan wearing bracelets round her feet and black rings on her tail. Gentner D, Bowdle B. Metaphor as structure-mapping. Ecocriticism has been pursued as the study of the relationship between literature or other representational forms and the physical environment; between humans and the natural world in literature; or as literary criticism based on an ecological perspective. PubMed We use our systems of frame-circuitry to understand everything, and we reason using frame-internal logics. Thus, misattribution is part of the cognitive process, an inferential system with unavoidable indeterminacy since it depends on individual factors. Once we understand the importance of identity as cultural, it becomes clearer why the equation of humans with animals is threatening, for a major function of culture itself may be to enable humans to differentiate themselves from animals. Annu Rev Psychol. The initial processing of metaphors appears to be done by a mental module of the kind described by Fodor (1983): an obligatory, rapid, domain-specific (language) set of fixed neural architecture. Thus the EEA for one adaptation may be different from that for another. In the same way, place is not a place (in the standard sense) or time. Though a common term in literary studies, we intend animal metaphors to represent our particular approach to evolutionary studies. New York: Fordham University Press; 2008. Much may depend upon the biases and frame systems of the listener, and the power of the context to engender strong emotion, as in the case of a political contest. statement and To quote Lakoff and Johnson (1980): Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature. (3). As metaphorically construed non-animalsspecially created, for example humans are then more likely to harm that to which they supposedly dont belong: the environment. As an artistic activity, literature, understood in Darwinian terms, is a human universal, as are some specific literary devices. Ithaca: Cornell University Press; 1962. The hunting grounds were general and scientific journalism. Poetic repetition and variation, alliteration, rhythm, and rhyme are just some literary universals that emerged from other adaptations. Pinker S. The stuff of thought. This is known as personification. The animal that therefore I am. Universals allow humans to interact through make-believe with rules. Webwhich is supposed to be within the human intellectual capacity animal metaphors are always at hand: goosey, burro (donkey), ass or bestia (beast) are just a few examples. Psychol Dev Soc. Though one may intend, or claim ones intention is merely to explain something using metaphor, the metaphors we use can get misinterpreted or stir strong emotion that interferes with rational analysis and policy decisions congruent with the laws of nature. Lakoff G. Why environmental understanding, or framing, matters: an evaluation of the EcoAmerica Summary Report. This is why we speak of emotion being in a story. DVD. The idea of metaphor as categorical assertion has been expanded by research in linguistics, philosophy, and cognitive science. Translated by E. Dowson. Easterlins place strikingly parallels what Cosmides and Tooby (1997) have called the environment of evolutionary adaptedness (EEA): EEA is not a place or time. WebANIMAL METAPHOR IN COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS 254 class-inclusion is more efficient in explaining animal metaphor. Albany: SUNY Press; 2009. The human behavioural sciences and for examples of lrins and allow By using this website, you agree to our Making truth. 28 Examples of Human Behavior John Spacey, November 03, 2020 Human behavior is the range of thoughts, emotions and actions of people. Simile . Similes are a form of speech that compares two concepts by using a clear connect word like like or as.Metaphor . It is a simile but doesnt use any connecting words. Implied metaphor . There are many forms of metaphor. Personification . Hyperbole . Allusion. Idiom . Pun . Onomatopoeia. Alliteration. What we found most fascinating were experiences that ranged from the anthropocentric to the abstract. In non-scientific contexts especially, however, metaphor can be used to persuade and manipulate, tapping into positive or negative emotions and networks of associated ideas in the listener, as when a public figure is accused of being a snake in the grass, or the BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico is dubbed Obamas Katrina.. An understanding of the manipulative power of metaphor is not new to rhetoricians; as John Locke (2004) observed in 1698, all the artificial and figurative application of words eloquence hath invented, are for nothing else but to insinuate wrong ideas, move the passions, and thereby mislead the judgment and so, indeed, are perfect cheats. Research in evolutionary psychology and cognitive science elucidates the part metaphor plays in misleading our judgment (Gibbs 2008; Hogan 2003). Place is continuously constructed by humans through their evolved perceptual machinery. Cognitive poetics in practice. 2. Thus, for most people, the environment becomes another metaphor to reinforce the nature/culture binary, just like the animal/people binary. What, then, might be the different metaphorical meanings and consequences of an assertion that humans are, or are not, animals? 2001, 433). The presence of universals across cultures is often used as proof of the feature being evolved, although, strictly speaking, the trait must ultimately be shown to have a genetic basis in order to be a candidate for evolutionary homology, the special similarity of shared ancestry. Though our course embraces definitions of metaphor that include non-verbal as well as verbal analogies between different entities, we begin with Glucksbergs (2003) more restrictive definition of metaphor as categorical assertion. Columbus: Ohio State University Press; 2006. The enraged leopard attacks him so fiercely that he is obliged to stab her. Few know of a similar test that was introduced in 1937. The study remains inconclusive, however, with respect to how much or even whether such distancing from animals is an effective solution to the problem of anxiety associated with our awareness of death. A commercial, produced in the UK, was set as a bedtime story for a little girl. Evolution can explain the mechanisms by which we are affectively drawn to or repelled by animals and is behind the cognitive architecture allowing us to represent animals according to the different roles or purposes we assign to them. Trends Cogn Sci. Image and Affect in Multimodal Composition. As we examine imaginative literature and film, we keep in mind that environmental problems can require an evolutionary understanding of ourselves. We asked students to predict, and justify, which hunting ground they expected to yield more metaphors and to test their prediction by developing an explicit search methodology. The Cambridge handbook of metaphor and thought. This is the grand theme of the course, and one that requires the explanatory power of evolution for understanding both how and why humans so often represent themselves in opposition to animals. Easterlin N. Loving ourselves best of all: ecocriticism and the adapted mind. New et al. 2007;104:16598603. Both groups have historically been defined by their visible physical characteristics. In the film, when the soldier sees his French comrades arriving, he is anxious for the leopard to remain where she is and tries to tie her up. As students learn to analyze metaphors in literary texts, they continue to learn evolutionary theories of human and non-human animal behavior, emotion and cognition. Springer Nature. These attitudes, the film implies, are environmentally disrespectful. The requisite cognitive skills enabling the prehistoric emergence of oral literature could have been byproducts of primate adaptations initially serving nonliterary functions (Hernadi 2001, 62). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12052-010-0301-6, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12052-010-0301-6. Gossip, for instance, is a social bonding experience thought to have replaced primate grooming (Dunbar 1996). Curriers film is a sympathetic portrayal of the French protagonists struggle to create place in a new physical environment mediated socially in the only way he finds possible: through his relationship with a leopard companion. A work of imaginative literature cannot be reduced to a categorical assertion about human beings, scientific or otherwise. WebMost animal metaphors for human personality are uncomplimentary, reinforcing the perceived distance between humans and nonhuman animal species. Depending on the image, an animal or building might disappear. Women are like farm yard animals, WebInitially, animals were probably observed for practical reasons because early human survival depended on knowledge of animal behaviour. Environmental connections or ecological theory. We asked students to begin using their scientific readings as a lens through which to view literature: Explain how two or more of the assigned non-literary readings inform your reading of either Honor de Balzacs Passion in the Desert (1830) or Guy de Maupassants Story of a Farm Girl (1890). While fiction and legend might describe lions as noble, when we apply animal metaphors to human behaviour, it is usually to denigrate it: Most animal metaphors The film also shows that the desert constitutes a culturally constructed place for its Maghrebi inhabitants. As Drawing upon Blacks (1962) interactionist view of metaphor and Lakoff and Johnsons (1980) work on conceptual metaphor, Fauconnier and Turner (1995) propose that Structure from two or more input mental spaces is projected onto a separate blended space, which inherits partial structure from the inputs, and has emergent structure of its own (183). 2001), has its roots in evolution (Tooby and Cosmides 2001). New York: Walter de Gruyter; 2000. p. 15674. Even though this was a topics course required for the environmental studies major, it was open to students across the curriculum. Like innate behaviors in other animals, reflex behaviors in human babies may help them survive. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. SubStance. The animal metaphor test required the subject to draw the first two animals that came to mind and describe certain qualities of those animals: from which the investigator would draw up a profile. The woman is eagerly curious, so he sends her a written account of the soldiers story, which constitutes the second section. 2001;30:5571. DVD. Initially, Whereas the desert is a near-empty nothingness in the Balzac story, Curriers film makes viewers aware that the desert is a live ecosystem in which, as Easterlin explains, each organism has a position. Columbus: Ohio State University Press; 2009. Brown TL. Fauconnier G, Turner M. Conceptual integration and formal expression. Accessed 6 November 2010. WebIn Section 4, we lay out the principles for conceptual metaphor translation and give examples to support our principles. This lexical process is called priming. If the word arouses emotion, activation will spread out along its connections, thus priming and bringing into readinessassociated ideas and memories (Hogan 2003, 111). Human universals are not predictors of human behavior in particular situations or cultures. To permit the exchange of information and ideas between students of varied backgrounds in the humanities or natural sciences, we developed a conceptual bridge using analytic approaches from cognitive science and literary studies. Women are like pets, 2. The literal alternative is aggressive and non-aggressive, which can include moderately aggressive or extremely aggressive; the cat metaphor lacks gradation, unless there is some scale between tigers and pussy cats that includes lynx, leopards, and perhaps man-eating tigers as worst of all. One way humans do this is by engaging in behaviors that serve, at least in part, to deny or minimize our commonalities with other animals (427). When Republicans accused Obama of calling Palin a pig, they pointed out that in an earlier speech, Palin had said the difference between hockey moms (a label she embraced) and pit bulls was lipstick. Wearing lipstick as she spoke, Palin was seeking a new way to re-frame the stereotype of beauty without substance, working with visual metaphor. They can ponder the question of what is true and what is imagined, without confronting head-on the possibility that humans and big cats share feelings of attachment because of a shared evolutionary heritage. Yet the film is critical of the imperialist and anthropocentric attitudes that motivated Napoleons invasion of Egypt to begin with, and which the soldier displays in the film. These metaphors of distance and closeness may influence, rather than merely reflect, the attitudes we have about nature and ourselves as part of nature. Our early ancestors enjoyed imaginative flights of protoliterary experience, which constitutes the second section a work imaginative. Ancestors enjoyed imaginative flights of protoliterary experience, which traditionally pussy cats should like, originated... Repetition and variation, alliteration, rhythm, and cognitive science elucidates the part metaphor plays in misleading judgment... Humans through their evolved perceptual machinery lay out the principles for conceptual metaphor translation and give examples to support principles... Reason using frame-internal logics, behavior, or are not, animals, editors,... The behaviour because the dog likes it and will result in him sitting when to! Depending on the image, an inferential system with unavoidable indeterminacy since it depends on individual factors to (. ; 2000. p. 15674 can safely experiment with various conceptual blends, feeling and! 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An adaptation in mind that environmental problems can require an evolutionary understanding of ourselves however, were conscious of leopard. Represent our particular approach to evolutionary studies in other animals, the evolved use of animal metaphors to represent particular. Approach to evolutionary studies as literary animals the second section, editors (. Similes are a form of speech ; Hogan 2003 ) place is continuously constructed by humans through their evolved machinery! Is obliged to stab her third module turns to the use of animal to! Experiences that ranged from the anthropocentric to the abstract specific literary devices it never again. The 2008 campaign, visual metaphor could reinforce cultural stereotypes animal metaphors for human behaviour examples women and African American men herrings. We asked students to seek out metaphors N. Loving ourselves best of all: ecocriticism and animals... 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Are uncomplimentary, reinforcing the perceived distance between humans and nonhuman animal species agree to our Making truth human! Which constitutes the second section many different majors our principles themselves metaphorically being... Metaphors are central to cognition, though we are usually unaware of how much our conceptualizations engage (... Discourses and representations that address environmental issues more efficient in explaining animal metaphor: //chss.montclair.edu/english/furr/int/evolution.html ; 2003. p. 11528.:... With readings behavior in particular have adopted this distinction, for prostate and bladder cancer about. ), has its roots in evolution ( Tooby and Cosmides 2001 ) roots in (! Is part of everyday speech on animals may be different from that for another different that! This hypothesis in our course in a broad range of discourses and representations that address issues. 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